NOTES  ON  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 
AND  COLOR. 


PREPARED  FOR  THi  USD 
OF  STUDENTS  OF  THE  UNI- 
VERSITY OF  '..UNO'  FY 
FRANK  FORREST  FRED-  ' ■(':«, 
PROFESSOR  OF  INDUSTRIAI 
ART  AND  rr'Sj\ 


URBANA,  II  !NOlS 

1893 


. 1 ; "'i  \ 


II 


DEPARTMENT  OF  j| 

741  2 SI  i 


LIBRARY  OF 


4 University  of  Illinois.  # 

# # 

^ Books  are  not  to  be  taken  from  the  Library  Room.  ^ 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below.  A 
charge  is  made  on  all  overdue 
books.  TT  r T T .. 

U.  of  I.  Library 


1762S-S 


NOTES  ON  FREE-HAND  DRAWING 
AND  COLOR 


PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE 
OF  STUDENTS  OF  THE  UNI- 
VERSITY OF  ILLINOIS,  BY 
FRANK  FORREST  FREDERICK, 
PROFESSOR  OF  INDUSTRIAL 
ART  AND  DESIGN 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS 
1893 


Copyright,  1893,  by 
FRANK  FORREST  FREDERICK. 


P.  E.  LANGLEY,  PRINTER,  HYDE  PARK,  MASS. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 


“Why,  I cannot  even  draw  a straight  line!” 

Who  can  ? 

If  you  are  a mechanical  draughtsman  and  need  absolutely  straight 
lines,  you  will  take  a ruler  and  draw  them,  but  in  the  objects  we 
wish  to  draw  there  are  no  such  lines,  and  anyone  can  draw  lines 
straight  enough  to  answer  the  purpose. 

Anyone  can  learn  to  draw  who  can  learn  anything.  Artists  are 
born,  not  made;  but  draughtsmen  can  be  made,  or  rather  they  can 
make  themselves  by  work  and  hard  study. 

“I  have  worked  a month  and  my  drawing  will  not  look  like  the 
object.” 

How  many  years  has  it  taken  you  to  learn  enough  of  English 
composition  to  write  an  accurate  and  graphic  description  of  a book? 
Can  you,  then,  expect  to  learn  to  draw  that  same  book  without  long 
and  careful  study? 

“I  shall  never  learn  to  be  an  artist.” 

True,  you  never  will. 

I shall  never  learn  to  be  a poet;  but  I may  learn  to  write  prose  of 
a quality  to  be  understood,  and  you  may  make  a drawing  that  will 
fulfil  the  same  condition,  providing  you  study.  A draughtsman  does 
not  sit  down  to  his  paper  and  without  thought  produce  a drawing. 

He  thinks! 

The  old  story  of  the  child  who  said,  “Drawing  is  thinking,  and 
then  marking  around  the  think,”  is  as  good  and  true  now  as  when 
first  said.  I hope,  in  these  notes,  to  give  you  something  to  think 
about  that  will  help  you  in  your  drawing;  but  all  the  books  ever 
written  and  all  the  teachers  in  the  world  will  not  help  you  unless 
you  do  your  own  thinking,  your  own  seeing,  your  own  experiment- 
ing and  give  your  whole  heart  to  the  work  with  courage  to  accept 
many  a defeat. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/notesonfreehanddOOfred 


ELEMENTARY  EXERCISES. 


Before  beginning  the  actual  work  of  representing 
objects,  the  student  should  gain  command  of  his  pencil 
and  be  able  to  draw  straight  lines,  horizontal,  vertical, 
oblique,  or  circles,  ellipses  or  any  other  curve  with  perfect 
freedom.  With  any  cheap  paper  and  a soft  pencil  he 
should  practice  the  following  exercises,  remembering  that 
their  aim  is  not  the  production  of  perfect  drawings,  but  a 
free-hand. 

The  pencil  should  be  held  firmly  about  an  inch  from  the 
point,  with  the  hand  free  from  the  paper.  When  drawing, 
the  hand  and  arm  should  first  swing,  with  point  near 
paper,  in  the  direction  the  line  is  to  take,  and,  when  it 
seems  that  the  line  will  take  that  direction,  it  should  be 
drawn  without  changing  the  direction  of  the  swing  of  the 
hand. 

I.  Draw  circles  about  four  inches  in  diameter. 

II.  Place  points  to  form  a square  of  four  or  five  inches 
and  draw  sides  and  diagonals  without  changing  the 
position  of  the  board.  Draw  from  the  top  down  and 
from  left  to  right.  Hold  the  pencil  at  right  angles  to  the 
line  that  it  may  at  all  times  be  visible. 

III.  Draw  ellipses  of  various  sizes. 

IV.  Draw  parallel,  vertical,  horizontal  and  oblique  lines 
about  six  inches  long. 

V.  Draw  curves,  as  vase  forms,  from  copy. 

Draw  each  line  firmly,  but  lightly,  and  of  definite 
length.  When  an  object  is  bounded  by  many  lines,  they 
should  be  drawn  very  lightly,  that  those  which  take  the 


6 

wrong  direction  may  be  erased  at  one  time  and  the  others 
“ lined  in.” 

Additional  freedom  of  hand  will  be  attained  if  these 
exercises"  are  drawn  with  water-color,  using  a large  round- 
pointed  brush. 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING.  - 


William  Morris  Hunt  said  : “ You  are  to  draw  not 
reality,  but  the  appearance  of  reality.”  The  first  duty  of 
the  student  is  to  forget  the  real  form  of  the  object  before 
him  and  study  its  appearance  as  affected  by  position  and 
distance. 

If  we  look  through  the  window  and  trace  upon  the 
glass  the  lines  of  any  building  we  may  see,  we  will  have 
upon  the  glass  a picture  of  it.  A true  picture  if  the 
glass  be  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  we  look, 
a distorted  picture  if  not.  (See  Fig.  2,  Plate  II.)  All  its 
lines,  horizontal,  vertical  or  oblique,  are  drawn  upon  the 
glass — therefore  drawn  upon  one  plane.  In  making  a 
drawing  of  anything,  all  lines,  whatever  their  direction, 
must  be  drawn  upon  one  plane  — a sheet  of  paper  — 
therefore  we  must  understand  the  principles  that  govern 
the  representation  of  objects. 

In  drawing,  we  imagine  an  infinite  number  of  visual  rays 
centring  in  the  eye  and  radiating  to  every  point  of  the 
object  looked  at.  The  ray  to  the  centre  of  nearest  edge, 
or  to  the  nearest  corner  or  surface  of  the  object,  accord- 
to  the  position  of  the  object,  we  will  call  the  line  of  sight.1 
The  direction  of  this  line  of  sight  will  change  as  we  look 
up  or  down  or  right  or  left,  but  it  must  constantly  be 
borne  in  mind  in  order  to  appreciate  the  following  rules 
describing  the  appearance  of  objects. 

i Note:  The  difference  between  a perspective  drawing  and  a 
“free-hand”  drawing  is  this:  In  perspective  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  sight  does  not  change  and  all  objects  are  drawn  upon  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight.  In  ordinary  drawing,  the 
line  of  sight  is  constantly  changing,  for  as  different  parts  of  the 
object  are  regarded,  each  visual  ray  in  turn  becomes  the  line  of 


8 


If  the  drawings  on  Plate  I are  first  carefully  studied, 
using  a cube  to  test  the  statements,  the  rules  will  be 
readily  understood.2 

Fig.  i represents  a cube  as  it  might  appear  when  about 
ten  feet  from  the  spectator,  and  two  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  eye.  The  cube  is  so  turned  that  one  side  makes  a 
greater  angle  with  the  line  of  sight  than  the  other,  there- 
fore appearing  narrower,  and  the  top  is  so  near  the  level 
of  the  eye  that  it  appears  very  narrow  compared  with 
the  entire  height.  To  appreciate  this  foreshortening  of 
the  upper  surface  of  any  rectangular  object  it  is  well  to 
imagine  the  nearest  vertical  edge,  as  3-4,  continued  to  cut 
a further  edge,  as  1-5,  and  compare  the  apparent  distance 
between  them  with  the  length  of  the  vertical  edge. 

In  Fig.  2 the  two  sides  make  equal  angles  with  the  line 
of  sight,  and  therefore  appear  of  equal  width.  The  edges 
5-4  and  5-6  make  equal  angles  with  5-2,  and  with  an 
imaginary  horizontal  line  drawn  through  point  5.  The 
top  is  on  the  level  of  the  eye  and  therefore  appears  as  a 
horizontal  line,  2-3  being  a continuation  of  1-2. 

In  Fig.  3 the  sides  make  equal  angles  with  the  line  of 
sight,  but  the  top  is  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  and  corner 
%2  is  seen  vertically  over  4-6.  From  the  position  of  the 
cube  in  Fig  1 it  is  seen  that  the  further  corner  5 falls  to 
the  right  of  3-4. 

Fig.  4 shows  the  cube  above  the  level  of  the  eye. 
Lower  base  3-4~5-6  is  visible  and  edges  3-5  and  4-6  will 

sight,  and  the  drawing  may  be  considered  as  drawn  upon  the  con- 
cave surface  of  a sphere  of  which  the  eye  is  the  centre,  and  vertical 
lines  will  therefore  appear  to  converge,  upward  if  above  the  level 
of  the  eye,  and  downward  if  below  ; but  vertical  lines  are  always 
drawn  geometrically  vertical,  for  if  not  so  drawn  the  object  will 
appear  distorted. 

2 Note:  “Free-Hand  Drawing”  by  Anson  K.  Cross  (published  by 
the  author,  Mass.  Normal  Art  School,  Boston;  price,  $1.50)  is  the  best 
work  on  the  subject  yet  published.  It  is  in  the  University  library 
and  students  not  having  time  to  consult  it  there  should  purchase 
the  work. 


10 


be  found  to  converge  downward.  The  centre  of  the  cube 
is  opposite  the  eye  with  surface  1-2-3-4  vertical,  hence 
not  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight,  and  therefore 
not  seen  as  a square,  1-3  being  less  than  3-4.  If  the 
surface  1-2-3-4  was  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight  it 
would  then  appear  as  a square,  and  would  be  the  only  part 
of  the  cube  visible. 

Fig.  5 represents  a similar  cube  the  same  distance  below 
the  level  of  the  eye  as  Fig.  4 is  above.  Edges  3-5  and 
4-6  will  be  found  to  converge  to  the  same  point  as  edges 

3- 5  and  4-6  of  Fig.  4. 

Suppose  the  cube  to  be  moved  to  the  right  or  left  so 
that  a vertical  surface,  as  the  one  to  the  right,  is  included 
in  the  line  of  sight,  it  would  then  be  seen  as  a line,  6-4 
would  be  a continuation  of  4-2  and  3-5  would  converge 
to  it. 

Fig.  6 represents  the  cube  resting  on  one  edge,  three 
faces  visible,  and  the  diagonals  of  the  bases  vertical  and 
horizontal.  When  the  cube  is  in  this  position  it  will  be 
found  that  all  edges  appear  to  converge  or  vanish,  1-7, 

4- 6  and  3-5  vanish  upward  to  the  left,  3-2,  4-1  and  6-7 
upward  to  the  right,  and  1-2,  4-3  and  6-5  downward  to 
the  right. 

From  the  study  of  the  above,  and  from  experiment  and 
observation,  it  will  be  seen  that : 

I.  Any  line  or  plane  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight, 
(that  is,  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  we  are 
looking),  appears  of  its  true  shape. 

It  follows,  then,  that  the  greater  the  angle  a surface 
makes  with  the  line  of  sight  the  less  it  appears  of  its  true 
shape.  This  change  of  shape  resulting  from  change  of 
position  is  called  foreshortening,  and  surfaces  are  fore- 
shortened in  proportion  as  their  length  coincides  with  the 
direction  of  the  line  of  sight. 

This  can  be  easily  proved  by  holding  any  surface  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight.  When  so  placed  it 


I 


appears  of  its  true  shape,  as  it  is  turned  it  appears  less  of 
its  true  shape  until  it  is  seen  that : 

II.  Any  plane  included  in  a visual  ray  appears  as  a line. 

By  experimenting  to  test  this  statement,  it  will  be 

found  that  horizonal  lines  and  planes  on  a level  with  the 
eye  appear  as  horizontal  lines,  and  we  find  further : 

III.  That  horizontal  retreating  straight  lines  above  the 
level  of  the  eye  slant  downward,  and  those  below  slant 
upward  to  the  level  of  the  eye. 

This  can  be  tested  by  holding  a pencil  or  other  straight- 
edge, to  cover  horizontal  retreating  lines.  If  two 
straight-edges  are  taken  to  cover  any  parallel  retreating 
lines,  it  will  be  found  that  : 

IV.  Parallel  retreating  edges  converge  to  a point,  and 
converge  in  the  direction  of  their  farther  ends. 

It  follows  from  this  statement  that : 

V.  Equal  distances  in  perspective  appear  unequal,  the 
nearer  appearing  the  longer. 

This  can  be  illustrated  by  the  vertical  lines  of  the  tele- 
graph poles  beside  the  railway  track  and  the  horizontal 
lines  of  the  sleepers  between  them  This  apparent  differ- 
ence in  the  length  of  equal  lines  can  be  seen  everywhere 
and  is  easily  proved. 

It  follows  from  statement  I,  that: 

VI.  Of  two  equal  straight  lines  perpendicular  to  each 
other,  the  one  making  the  greater  angle  with  the  line  of 
sight  appears  shorter  and  vanishes  most  quickly. 

Vanishes  most  quickly,  that  is,  seems  to  converge  most 
quickly  to  a point. 

Angles  are  affected  by  position  and  distance.  Right 
angles  frequently  appear  acute  or  obtuse,  but  it  is  found 
that  : 

VII.  The  right  angles  formed  by  two  lines  perpendicu 
lar  to  each  other  will  always  appear  as  such,  providing 
one  line  is  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight. 

The  line  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight  has  its  ends 


2 


equi-distant  from  the  eye;  the  other  may  appear  of  its 
true  length  or  as  a point. 

The  circle  appears  of  its  true  shape  when  perpendicular 
to  the  line  of  sight,  as  a line  when  included  in  it  and  as 
an  ellipse  when  in  any  other  position. 

The  long  axis  of  an  ellipse  representing  a circle  is 
perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight,  for  this  axis  connects 
the  two  points,  equi-distant  from  the  eye,  in  the  circum- 
ference where  visual  rays  become  tangent.  Hence  the 
long  axis  of  an  ellipse  representing  a horizontal  circle 
must  be  a geometrically  horizontal  line,  and  : 

VIII.  The  long  axis  of  every  ellipse  is  perpendicular 
to  the  line  of  sight. 

When  the  circle  is  seen  as  an  ellipse,  a line  perpen- 
dicular to  it  at  its  centre  will  appear  to  coincide  with  and 
continue  the  short  axis.  Therefore  it  will  be  seen  that  in 
a right  cylinder  or  cone  (or  objects  based  on  these  forms): 

IX.  The  long  axis  of  the  ellipse  representing  the  base 
will  always  be  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  solid. 

For  the  axis  of  the  solid  is  the  line  perpendicular  to 
the  centre  of  the  circle,  and  the  ends  of  the  long  axis  of 
the  ellipse  are  equi-distant  from  the  eye,  hence  (see  VII) 
these  two  lines  will  be  drawn  geometrically  perpendicular 
to  each  other.  (See  Plates  XII,  XIII,  XIV,  XV,  XVI  in 
“ Free-Hand  Drawing,”  by  A.  K.  Cross.) 

Single  Objects. 

As  all  objects  are  based  on  geometric  forms  these 
should  be  drawn  till  the  student  is  familiar  with  them. 

It  is  suggested  that  they  be  studied  in  the  following 
order : 

Cube. 

Square  Prism. 

Square  Plinth. 

Cylinder. 

Square  Pyramid. 


13 


Circular  Plinth. 

Hexagonal  Prism. 

Cone. 

Pentagonal  Prism. 

Double  Cone. 

Square  Frame. 

Cross. 

Skeleton  Cube. 

Vase  Form. 

These  should  be  first  drawn  as  they  appear  when  rest- 
ing upon  their  bases  and  then  redrawn  after  being 
placed  on  their  sides  or  inclined.  In  drawing  single 
objects,  all  lines  of  the  same  system  (parallel)  should  be 
drawn  at  the  same  time,  drawing  first  those  that  appear 
longest. 

• Suppose  that  a drawing  is  to  be  made  of  a cube  in  a 
position  similar  to  Fig.  i,  Plate  I.  It  is  suggested  that 
the  nearest  vertical  edge,  3-4,  be  first  drawn.  Its  length 
will  determine  the  scale  of  the  drawing.  Next,  lightly 
sketch,  of  indefinite  length,  the  vertical  lines  defining  the 
width  of  the  side  faces,  as  1-2  and  6-7.  Then,  freely 
swinging  the  arm,  sketch  the  long  vanishing  edges,  1 — 5^, 
3-6  and  4-7,  sketching  last  the  short  vanishing  edges, 
6-5,  3-1  and  4-2. 

To  test  the  direction  of  a line,  hold  paper  and  pencil  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight  and  move  pencil,  which 
should  be  held  with  arm  fully  extended,  till  it  seems  to 
cover  the  line  of  the  object,  then  swing  the  arm  till  the 
pencil  covers  the  drawing.  But  all  lines  should  be  drawn 
first  and  tested  afterwards.  (See  use  of  plumb-line 
described  below.) 

Groups  of  Objects. 

After  the  geometric  solids  have  been  drawn  singly  they 
should  be  placed  together  forming  groups. 

The  above  method  of  work  could  not  now  be  followed, 
for  if  the  objects  were  drawn  separately  they  would  not 


14 


take  their  proper  places  in  the  group.  The  objects  should 
be  drawn  at  the  same  time,  finishing  no  one  part  till  it  is 
found  that  every  line,  angle  and  surface  holds  proper 
relation  to  other  lines,  angles  and  surfaces. 

(1)  Study  the  group. 

(a)  Compare  entire  height  and  width. 

(h)  Decide  upon  the  shape  of  the  contour  of  the  group 
as  a whole.  If  this  cannot  be  determined,  move  the 
pencil,  always  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  sight,  to  cover 
the  most  important  bounding  lines  and  to  connect  the 
principal  angles  and  notice  the  shape  of  area  enclosed. 

(c)  Notice  the  width  of  the  various  surfaces  and  the 
difference  in  apparent  length  of  lines  and  degree  of  angles. 

(d)  Notice  the  shape  of  the  openings  between  the 
objects. 

( e ) Observe  where,  if  lines  were  continued,  they  would 
cut  other  lines  or  appear  to  leave  the  group. 

(2)  Sketch  the  group. 

(a)  Draw  first  its  general  contour,  resolving  it  into  as 
few  lines  as  possible.  Notice  that  the  nearest  angle  upon 
the  horizontal  plane  will  be  the  lowest  point  of  the  draw- 
ing and  plan  the  position  of  these  contour  lines  that  the 
drawing  may  be  properly  placed  upon  the  paper. 

( b ) Within  the  space,  place  the  separate  objects, 
sketching  them  in  as  rectangles  or  triangles  wherever 
possible,  and  representing  ellipses  by  their  diameters. 

(( c ) The  drawing  should  now  be  tested  with  a plumb- 
line  (a  black  thread  one  yard  long  to  which  is  attached  a 
small  weight).  By  use  of  this  it  can  be  seen  if  points 
are  vertically  under  other  points  or  lines,  and  by  holding 
it  horizontally,  the  levels  of  the  various  objects  can  be 
compared.  If  held  to  cover  an  edge,  and  it  is  seen  that  if 
the  edge  be  continued  it  will  cut  a certain  point,  it  follows 
that  if  the  line  representing  the  edge  be  continued  it 
would  cut  the  corresponding  point  in  the  drawing.  When 
not  held  vertically,  the  plumb-line  should  be  held  in  both 


i5 

hands,  with  arms  fully  extended,  that  it  may  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  line  of  sight. 

(d)  Complete  the  sketch  of  each  object  and  carefully 
test  each  line,  surface  and  angle. 

(3)  Line  in  the  group. 

(a)  Erase  all  the  test  and  sketch  lines,  leaving  only  the 
correct  outline  which  should  be  almost  erased,  leaving  a 
very  light  suggestion  of  a line. 

( b ) Draw  the  group  upon  this  sketch.  In  lining  in,  the 
lines  should  be  represented  as  they  appear.  No  rules  can 
be  given,  but  it  is  well  to  make  dark  the  lines  that  separate 
dark  surfaces  from  light,  and  light,  those  that  separate 
dark  or  light  surfaces.  The  elements  of  cones,  cylinders, 
etc.,  and  the  outer  lines  of  the  group  should  be  medium. 

Common  Objects.  V 

In  drawing  a group  composed,  for  example,  of^several 
books  and  a vase,  the  method  to  follow  is  the  same  as  in 
drawing  a group  of  geometric  solids. 

(1)  Sketch  in  the  group  as  a whole. 

(2)  Sketch  in  the  several  objects,  treating  them  as  if 
they  were  geometric  solids,  paying  no  attention  to  detail, 
irregularities  or  accidents  — drawing  books  as  plinths  or 
prisms,  vases  as  cylinders,  etc. 

(3)  When  the  drawing  is  correct  in  proportion,  the 
type  forms  may  be  made  to  express  their  individuality. 
The  drawing  of  the  book  must  represent  the  book  in  the 
group,  not  any  book. 

The  si%e  of  furniture  should  not  confuse  the  student. 
Truths  of  perspective  are  the  same  whether  seen  in  a 
chair  or  in  a cube.  A group  of  furniture,  as  a table,  chair 
and  easel,  should  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
group  of  geometric  solids. 

Interiors. 

In  making  a drawing  to  represent  the  interior  of  a 
room,  it  is  suggested  that  the  first  step  taken  be  the 


i6 


placing  of  the  horizon  line  which  should  be  drawn.  (See 
Fig.  3,  Plate  II.) 

One  way  to  find  its  level  is  as  follows  : Hold  the  pencil 
horizontal,  revolve  till  the  end  only  can  be  seen  ; it  will 
then  point  to  a place  through  which  the  horizon  line  must 
pass  as  it  will  be  at  the  level  of  the  eye.  The  vertice.l 
distance  taken  from  this  point  to  the  floor,  must  then  be 
the  unit  of  proportion  for  the  drawing. 

All  horizontal  retreating  lines  will  converge  to  this 
line. 

The  vanishing  points  of  lines  can  be  approximately 
determined  by  holding  straight-edges  to  cover  lines  of  the 
system  and  observing  their  intersection  with  the  horizon 
line. 

The  scale  for  drawings  of  interiors  is  determined  by  the 
distance  taken  from  the  floor  to  the  intersection  of  the 
horizon  line  and  the  line  representing  the  corner  of  the 
room.  (See  A B,  Fig.  3,  Plate  II.) 


Casts  of  Ornament. 

Draw  first  the  leaf  as  a whole,  then  its  lobes.  If  the 
ornament  has  an  axis  it  may  be  drawn  first ; but  always 
draw  the  construction  lines,  carefully  studying  the  general 
“flow”  of  the  ornament. 

If  we  infinitely  increase  the  sides  of  an  equilateral 
triangle  we  will  have  a circle.  A curve  should  be,  when 
first  sketched,  a series  of  straight  lines, — one  or  two  to 
give  general  direction,  then  others  to  refine  it. 

In  lining-in  ornament,  study  to  express  the  relief  and 
the  quality  of  the  edges. 

In  a model  drawing,  we  continue  the  lines  of  objects  to 
test  our  drawing;  so,  in  drawing  ornament,  we  can  sup- 
pose curves  to  be  continued  and  note  where  they  cut 
other  lines  or  appear  to  leave  the  cast.  Remember  that 
much  can  be  expressed  by  lack  of  line. 


i8 

The  Antique. 

In  making  a drawing  from  an  antique  figure,  first 
place  upon  the  paper  two  touches  that  will  represent  its 
height.  Draw  a vertical  line  to  represent  the  axis  of  the 
figure,  find  its  centre  point  and  the  corresponding  point 
upon  the  cast,  and  proceed  at  once,  after  careful  study,  to 
sketch  in  the  figure  in  bold  sweeping  curves,  striving 
to  get  the  life  and  action.  Represent  the  face,  hands  and 
feet  by  simply  blocking-in  lines,  until  it  is  found  that  the 
character  of  the  drawing  as  a whole  has  been  obtained, 
then  draw  minor  masses.  A knowledge  of  artistic 
anatomy  is  necessary  to  the  truthful  representation  of  the 
muscles  clothing  the  framework  of  bone. 

Tests. 

Measurements  and  tests  have  been  referred  to  in  the 
foregoing  notes.  The  best  and  only  accurate  test,  is  a 
trained  eye  — hence,  tests  can  only  be  of  assistance  to  the 
untrained  eye.  It  follows,  then,  that  we  should  draw  first 
and  test  afterward  if  we  would  educate  the  eye  to  see  and 
the  hand  to  express. 


“ Masterly  drawing  is  the  result  of  knowledge.”  — F.  W.  Moody. 


CHIAROSCURO. 


Chiaroscuro  has  been  defined  as  “ the  art  means  where- 
by objects  are  cast  in  relief  upon  a flat  surface  and  made 
to  assume  the  appearance  of  reality.”  The  following 
notes  were  prepared  with  special  reference  to  light  and 
shade  expressed  with  charcoal  or  crayon,  but  apply 
equally  well  to  other  mediums,  whether  monochrome 
or  color. 

In  a light  and  shade  drawing  everything,  except  color, — 
action,  character,  form,  relation  to  surroundings,  and 
position  in  space,  can  be  expressed  by  means  of  values  of 
shade.  By  value , meaning  the  intensity  of  light  and 
shade  as  compared  with  other  parts  of  the  object,  or  the 
background. 

A light  and  shade  drawing  should  accentuate  the  essen- 
tial and  characteristic  features  and  make  detail  subordinate. 
It  should  be  carried  on  simultaneously,  keeping  at  all 
times  the  proper  relation  of  values. 

In  making  a light  and  shade  drawing : 

{a)  Determine  the  areas  in  shade  and  shape  of  cast 
shadows  and  lightly  sketch  this  line  of  demarcation. 

(b)  Over  shade,  shadow  and  cast  shadow  lay  a flat  tint 
that  will  represent  the  average  intensity  of  shade. 

( c ) Blend  this  into  the  light,  and  on  the  light  side  lay 
such  values  as  are  seen. 

(d)  Increase  the  tone  of  such  surfaces  or  parts  of 
surfaces,  as  are  darker  and  represent  any  special 
markings. 

Value  for  color  must  be  given.  If  an  object  is  white 
make  it  look  white ; if  blue,  blue,  etc.  The  light  side  of 
a dark  object  may  be  darker  than  the  dark  side  of  a light 
object. 


20 


The  shape  of  a cast  shadow  depends  upon  the  shape  of 
the  object  casting  it  and  the  surface  over  which  it  falls. 

Try  to  make  the  objects  look  solid,  and  the  shadows 
transparent.  Make  the  objects  stand  on  the  horizontal 
plane,  and  in  front  of  the  vertical. 

Notice  the  “planes  of  shade”  and  study  carefully,  not 
only  the  value,  but  the  shape  and  size  of  such  planes. 
Never  increase  or  diminish  the  value  of  any  one  part, 
without  due  regard  to  the  values  of  all  other  parts.  Value 
of  shade  is  everywhere  graded ; a perfectly  flat  surface 
will  not  appear  the  same  value  throughout. 

Do  not  begin  to  shade  an  object  till  the  lightest  and 
darkest  points  have  been  determined. 

Look  at  objects  simply  ; there  is  a mass  of  light  and  a 
mass  of  shade.  The  prominent  points  in  the  effect  come 
between  the  extremes  of  light  and  dark.  The  light  and 
shade  is  modified,  both  in  position  and  intensity,  by  the 
direction  of  the  illuminating  rays  and  the  proximity  to 
other  objects. 

Strive  for  “breadth,”  which  is  obtained  by  masses  of 
intermediate  shade,  rather  than  by  contrasts. 


NOTES  ON  COLOR 


COMPILED  FROM  VARIOUS  SOURCES 
FOR  THE  USE  OF  STUDENTS  OF  THE 
SCHOOL  OF  ART  AND  DESIGN  UNI- 
VERSITY OF  ILLINOIS 


Many  theories  of  color  have  been  advanced  by  savants,  but  it  can 
be  truly  stated  that  no  one  yet  fully  understands  the  subject. 

In  preparing  these  notes,  the  compiler  has  endeavored  to  present 
theories  and  facts  in  such  a way  that  the  student,  having  worked 
out  these  suggested  combinations  by  the  actual  use  of  the  pigments, 
may  have  knowledge  upon  which  to  base  original  study  of  color 
harmonies. 


COLOR. 


“Of  all  God’s  gifts  to  the  sight  of  man,  colour  is  the  holiest.”  — 
Ruskin. 

(1)  White  light  can  be  resolved  into  three  colors, 
yellow,  red  and  blue  in  the  proportion  of  three  areas  of 
yellow,  five  of  red  and  eight  of  blue. 

(2)  Yellow,  red  and  blue  are  called  the  Primary  colors. 

(3)  The  combination  of  primary  colors  gives  Secondary 
colors  : 

Yellow  3 areas  -|-  Red  5 areas  — Orange  8 areas. 

Yellow  3 areas -f- Blue  8 areas'— Green  11  areas. 

Blue  8 areas -j- Red  5 areas  — Purple  13  areas. 

(4)  The  combination  of  Secondary  colors  gives  Tertiary 
colors. 

Orange  8 areas + Green  11  areas— Citron  19  areas. 

Orange  8 areas +Purple  13  areas  — : Russet  21  areas. 

Green  11  areas  +Purple  13  areas=  Olive  24  areas.  1 

(5)  Citron  is  the  yellow  tertiary,  for  yellow  predom- 
inates. Russet  is  the  red  tertiary,  for  red  predominates. 
Olive  is  the  blue  tertiary,  for  blue  predominates. 

(6)  Tints  are  obtained  by  diluting  colors  with  white  or 
water.  Shades  by  adding  black  to  them.  Hues  by  mix- 
ing colors  in  varied  proportions. 

(7)  To  produce  perfect  harmony  in  color,  the  presence 
of  all  the  primaries  is  required,  either  in  pure  form,  or  in 
combination. 

(8)  A complementary  color  is  that  color  demanded  to 
produce  harmony.  The  complementary  secondary  of 

1 Note:  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  from  the  first  that  the  above 
proportion  of  areas  is  true  only  when  the  colors  fire  used  pure,  that 
is,  diluted  with  only  water  enough  to  permit  of  washing  upon  the 
paper. 


24 

yellow  is  purple,  (red  and  blue);  of  red,  green,  (yellow 
and  blue);  of  blue,  orange,  (yellow  and  red).  The  comple- 
mentary tertiary  of  purple  is  citron,  (orange  and  green) 
The  complementary  tertiary  of  green  is  russet,  (purple 
and  orange).  The  complementary  tertiary  of  orange  is 
olive,  (purple  and  green).  The  complementary  tertiary  of 
yellow  is  olive  for  olive  is  the  tertiary  that  comes  nearest 
to  purple,  the  complementary  secondary  of  the  primary 
yellow.  The  complementary  tertiary  of  red  is  citron. 
The  complementary  tertiary  of  blue  is  russet. 

(9)  Red,  orange  and  russet  are  warm  colors.  Blue, 
purple  and  olive  are  cold  colors.  Yellow  is  the  most 
nearly  allied  to  light  and  is  the  most  advancing  color. 
Blue  is  a retiring  color ; red  is  a stationary,  and  green  a 
restful  color.  Inherent  color  belongs  to  certain  material. 
Transient  colors  are  obtained  by  passing  light  through  a 
prism. 

(10)  Contrast  is  the  effect  arising  from  different  colors 
being  adjacent  to  one  another  (as  red  beside  blue  or 
yellow,  etc.)  Harmony  may  exist  with  or  without  con- 
trast. The  result  of  contrast  is  force,  not  necessarily  a 
want  of  harmony.  Yellow  and  purple  contrast  as  to  light 
and  dark ; red  and  green  do  not,  but  they  contrast  as  to 
power  of  color. 

(11)  Successive  contrast  comes  from  removing  the  eye 
from  an  object,  and  seeing  its  image  dressed  in  the  com- 
plementary color.  When  the  eye  is  then  fixed  upon 
another  colored  object,  the  color  of  the  latter  is  modified 
with  the  color  of  this  image  of  the  eye.  This  is  called 
mixed  contrast.  Simultaneous  contrast  comprises  all 
those  phenomena  which  take  place  when  colors  are  seen 
simultaneously  in  juxtaposition.  These  changes  arise 
from  a property  common  to  all  colored  objects  of  reflect- 
ing, along  with  their  own  hue,  a certain  amount  of  the 
complementary  rays  and  of  white  light.  (According  as 
the  surfaces  are  smooth,  glossy,  polished,  rough, 
channelled,  etc.) 


25 

(12)  Simple  harmonies  are  those  of  either  of  the  triads 
of  color ; compound  harmony  that  of  the  primaries  and 
their  compounds.  Of  the  simple  harmoines  the  greatest 
contrast  is  that  of  the  primaries,  red,  yellow  and  blue. 
Least  contrast,  that  of  the  tertiaries  — russet,  citron 
and  olive.  Orange,  full  contrast  with  blue ; subdued 
contrast  with  olive.  Purple,  full  contrast  with  yellow ; 
subdued  contrast  with  citron.  Green,  full  contrast  with 
red,  subdued  contrast  with  russet. 

If  some  blue  color  is  placed  at  a little  distance  from  some 
orange,  they  will  be  in  strong  contrast;  the  interposition  of  certain 
colors  will  subdue  this  contrast,  but  the  colors  interposed  must  be 
related  to  both  blue  and  orange  — green  or  purple. 

(13)  Complementary  colors  in  juxtaposition  mutually 
enrich  each  other. 

When  yellow  and  purple  are  arranged  side  by  side,  the  yellow  is 
apparently  deepened  in  tint  and  enriched  by  the  extra  yellow  rays 
given  out  by  the  purple;  at  the  same  time  the  purple  is  improved. 

(14)  In  order  to  obtain  full  harmony,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  juxtaposed  colors  should  be  of  equal  intensity  of  hue. 
Thus  the  law  of  harmony  will  be  found  in  complementary 
contrasts  of  color  with  analogy  of  hue.  When  analogy 
of  hue  is  wanting,  that  is,  when  a full  hue  of  color  is 
juxtaposed  with  a tint  or  shade  of  its  complementary, 
their  mutual  enrichment  of  each  other  decreases  in  the 
ratio  of  their  decrease  of  analogy  of  hue. 

By  juxtaposition  inharmonious  combinations  are  ren- 
dered still  more  inharmonious. 

If  purple  and  blue  are  placed  side  by  side,  both  colors  are 
injured.  A line  of  white  between  the  colors  diminishes  the  discord. 

(15)  Gray  increases  the  brilliancy  of  all  the  primary 
colors  when  in  juxtaposition  with  them.  It  may  also  act 
as  a color,  and  form  with  the  darker  hues  and  shades, 
harmonies  of  analogy,  while  with  the  lighter  hues  and 
tints  it  may  form  harmonies  of  contrast. 

Arrangements  of  the  primary  colors  with  black  are 
always  agreeable. 


26 


(16)  When  ornamental  forms  of  any  color  are  placed 
on  grounds  of  the  complementary  color  they  should  be 
surrounded  by  a margin  of  a lighter  or  darker  tint.  When 
the  ground  is  dark  and  the  ornament  light,  the  ornament 
should  be  edged  with  a lighter  tint.  When  the  orna- 
mental forms  are  dark,  on  a luminous  ground  of  a comple- 
mentary color,  the  forms  should  be  edged  with  a darker 
line. 

(17)  The  primaries  not  only  harmonize  with  the 
secondaries,  and  these  with  the  tertiaries,  in  their  full 
tones,  but  their  tints  also  harmonize. 

For  instance,  lilac,  which  is  a tint  of  purple,  is  in  harmony  with 
primrose,  a tint  of  yellow;  and  straw  color,  a tint  of  orange, 
contrasts  with  a tint  of  blue. 

The  luminous  primaries  and  secondaries  may  be  used 
in  their  full  tones,  with  tints  of  their  dark  complementaries. 

Thus,  orange  with  pale  blue,  yellow  with  lilac,  etc. 

The  surface  of  the  contrasting  tint  must  be  increased 
in  proportion  to  its  dilution  with  white. 

When  it  is  desired  to  have  a decoration  of  a dominant 
color  in  large  masses,  the  primaries  or  secondaries  may  be 
neutralized  into  shades  or  tints,  and  the  harmonies  may  be 
obtained  by  the  introduction  of  small  portions  of  the  pure 
complementary. 

Thus,  blue,  lowered  in  tone  by  black  may  be  supported  by  small 
portions  of  orange,  bounded  by  a lighter  tint  or  white. 

(18)  Combinations  maybe  made  of  the  following  colors  : 
blue,  green,  orange ; blue,  purple,  orange  ; blue,  purple, 
green,  orange  ; blue,  green,  citron,  orange,  purple ; blue, 
green,  purple,  russet,  orange. 

(19)  Color  is  used  to  assist  in  the  development  of  form, 
and  to  distinguish  objects  or  parts  of  objects  one  from 
another.  Color  is  used  to  assist  light  and  shade,  helping 
the  undulations  of  form  by  the  proper  distribution  of  the 
several  colors.  These  objects  are  best  attained  by  the  use 
of  the  primary  colors  on  small  surfaces  and  in  small 


2; 

quantities,  balanced  and  supported  by  the  secondary  and 
tertiary  colors  on  the  larger  masses.  The  primary  colors 
should  be  used  on  the  upper  portions  of  objects,  the 
secondary  and  tertiary  on  the  lower.  The  various  colors 
should  be  so  blended  that  the  objects  colored,  when 
viewed  at  a distance,  shall  present  a neutralized  bloom. 

Colors  on  white  grounds  appear  darker,  on  black 
grounds,  lighter.  When  ornaments  in  a color  are  on  a 
gold  ground,  the  ornaments  should  be  separated  from 
the  ground  by  an  edging  of  a darker  color.  Gold  orna- 
ments on  any  colored  ground  should  be  outlined  with 
black.  Ornaments  of  any  color  may  be  separated  from 
grounds  of  any  other  color  by  edgings  of  white,  gold  or 
black.  Ornaments  in  any  color,  or  in  gold,  may  be  used 
on  white  or  black  grounds,  without  outlining  or  edging. 
(See  “Grammar  of  Ornament,”  by  Owen  Jones.) 

(20)  In  theory,  the  combination  of  yellow,  red  and  blue 
should  produce  white,  in  practice,  gray  results.  It  is 
found,  therefore,  that  several  pigments  must  be  used  to 
produce  the  primaries,  secondaries  and  tertiaries.  It  is 
suggested  that  the  following  be  used  : 

Carmine  (Windsor  and  Newton’s  moist  water-colors) 
for  red. 

Gamboge  for  yellow. 

Cobalt  or  new  blue  for  blue. 

Pale  cadmium  for  orange. 

Brown  madder  for  russet. 

Mixed  gamboge  and  Prussian  blue  for  green. 

Mixed  carmine,  new  blue  and  a little  Prussian  blue,  for 
purple. 

Mixed  green  and  cadmium  and  a little  carmine,  for 
citron. 

For  olive,  mix  a gray  of  new  blue,  carmine  and  gamboge, 
and  add  green. 

In  designers’  dry  colors  (Wadsworth  Bros.  & Howland) 
use  carmine  No.  40,  ultramarine  blue  and  chrome  yellow, 
light,  singly  and  in  combination ; but  chrome  yellow,  dark, 


28  . 

should  be  used  for  orange  and  in  all  colors  into  which 
orange  enters. 

(21)  Suggested  problems : 

1.  Use  the  primaries  in  a simple  design,  keeping  the 
proper  areas. 

2.  Use  the  secondaries  in  a simple  design,  keeping  the 
proper  areas. 

3.  Use  the  tertiaries  in  a simple  design,  keeping  the 
proper  areas. 

4.  5,  6.  Use  the  primaries  and  their  complementary 
secondaries  in  simple  designs,  keeping  the  proper  areas. 

7,  8,  9.  Use  the  secondaries  and  their  complementary 
tertiaries  in  simple  designs,  keeping  the  proper  areas. 

10.  Place  dark  ornament  on  light  ground. 

11.  Place  light  ornament  on  dark  ground. 

12.  Illustrate  simple  harmony. 

13.  Illustrate  compound  harmony. 

14.  Illustrate  full  contrast. 

15.  Illustrate  subdued  contrast. 

16.  Illustrate  analogy  of  hue  by  placing  an  ornament 
(some  primary)  upon  gray  ground. 

17.  (a)  Use  a primary  (as  red)  with  its  complementaiy 
in  proper  areas. 

(1 b ) Use  the  same  area  of  the  primary,  with  a tint  of 
the  complementary. 

(i c ) Use  same  tint  and  area  of  the  complementary 
with  proper  area  of  the  primary. 


MATERIALS. 


Materials  Required  for  Elemetary  Work. 

1.  Drawing  board. 

Purchase  this  at  the  University  shop.  Nothing  but  the  “free- 
hand” size  can  be  used. 

2.  Pencils. 

Faber’s  H,  and  HHH  H H. 

Dixon’s  M B. 

Dixon’s  Sketching  Crayon. 

Sharpen  the  pencils  to  long  round  points  and  keep  them  always 
ready  for  use. 

3.  Paper. 

One  sheet  Whatman’s  medium  weight  water-color  paper  (Im- 
perial 22  x 30"  size),  one  sheet  French  charcoal  paper,  three  sheets 
Whatman’s  cold  pressed  drawing  paper  (Imperial  size).  Also 
purchase  ten  cents’  worth  of  blank  newspaper  at  the  printing  office. 

4.  One  half  dozen  thumb  tacks. 

5.  One  soft  eraser. 

6.  Bottle  of  Le  Page’s  glue. 

7.  Small  sponge. 

8.  Foot  rule. 

9.  Bottle  of  fixatif. 

10.  Atomizer. 

11.  Bowl  to  hold  about  one  pint  of  water. 

12.  One  half  pan  each  of  warm  sepia,  Prussian  blue  and 
gamboge. 

If  the  student  intends  to  devote  more  than  two  terms  to  the 
work  a water-color  box  should  be  purchased. 

13.  Brush. 

The  brush  should  be  large  and  of  good  quality.  Students  should 
purchase  brushes  with  the  understanding  that  they  can  be  returned 
if  not  suitable. 


30 

14-  One  Standard  Blank  Drawing  Book,  No  i. 

15  Two  mounting  boards. 

The  proper  size  can  be  obtained  only  at  the  University  Blue-print 
room. 

16.  Blotting  paper. 

This  should  be  white  and  cut  into  pieces  about  2x4  inches. 


Additional  Materials  Required  for  Advanced  Work. 

For  the  light  and  shade  class  : 

One  large  paper  stump  (about  one-half  inch  in  diameter). 

Charcoal  (the  sticks  triangular  in  section  are  the  best). 

Chamois  skin  (thick,  about  6x8"). 

One-half  dozen  sheets  French  charcoal  paper  (white,  1 9x24"). 

Water-color  class : 

Paper  stretcher  (this  can  be  purchased  only  at  the  shop). 

Colors:  Prussian  blue,  new  blue  or  cobalt,  gamboge,  cadmium 
yellow  (pale),  carmine,  brown  madder,  burnt  sienna,  raw  sienna, 
indigo,  light  red,  olive  green,  vermilion,  yellow  ochre,  rose  madder, 
ivory  black,  warm  sepia. 

Oil-color  class: 

Palette  (oiled  mahogany,  14  inch,  rectangular). 

Palette  knife  (5  inch). 

Oil  cup  (one  that  can  be  fastened  to  the  palette). 

Linseed  oil. 

Turpentine. 

Assorted  brushes. 

Winsor  and  Newton’s  oil  colors  in  tubes:  Indigo,  brown  pink, 
burnt  sienna,  raw  sienna,  burnt  umber,  raw  umber,  chrome  yellow, 
ivory  black,  light  red,  permanent  blue,  yellow  ochre,  vermilion, 
cadmium  orange,  white  (Devoe’s  large  tube). 

Box  for  oil  colors  to  hold  14-inch  palette. 

Class  in  pen  etching: 

“Architectural  Rendering  in  Pen  and  Ink,”  by  D.  A.  Gregg, 
Parts  I,  II,  III,  IY. 

One  sheet  best  quality  Bristol  board. 

Pens,  etc.,  as  required  in  Part  1. 

Class  in  architectural  rendering  in  wash : 

“Rendering  in  Sepia,”  by  Frank  F.  Frederick. 

Colors,  brushes,  etc.,  used  in  water-color  work. 


3i 


Modelling  class. 

Board. 

Modelling  tools  (assorted). 

Rubber  cloth  (about  4 feet  square),  also  several  pieces  of  old  of 
cloth  the  same  size. 

Sweet  oil. 

Chisels  1 inch,  % inch. 


I 


t 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


3 0112  002573621 


